DPA-Switch™ DC-DC Forward
Converter Design Guide
Application Note AN-31
Introduction
The single-ended forward converter topology is usually the
best solution for DC-DC applications in industrial controls,
Telecom central office equipment, digital feature phones, and
systems that use distributed power architectures.
The feature set of DPA-Switch offers the following advantages
in DC-DC single-ended forward converter designs:
• Low component count
• High efficiency (typically >91% with synchronous
rectification)
• Built in soft-start to minimize stress and overshoot
• Built in accurate line under-voltage detection
• Built-in accurate line overvoltage shutdown protection
• Built in adjustable current limit
• Built-in overload and open loop fault protection
• Built-in thermal shutdown
• Programmable duty cycle reduction to limit duty cycle
excursion at high line and transient load conditions
• Very good light-load efficiency
• Selectable 300 kHz or 400 kHz operation
• Lossless integrated cycle-by-cycle current limit
The example circuits in this design guide illustrate the use of
these and other features of DPA-Switch.
Scope
This document gives guidance for the design of a single-
ended forward converter with DPA-Switch in applications
that require a single output voltage. It is intended for systems
engineers and circuit designers who wish to become familiar
with the capabilities and requirements of DPA-Switch in
DC-DC applications. This application note provides background
material that will assist users of the DPA-Switch DC-DC forward
converter design utility that is included in the software design
tool, PI Expert. Subsequent application notes will provide
comprehensive procedures for designs of greater complexity.
Designers are advised to check Power Integrationsʼ website at
www.powerint.com for the latest application information and
design tools.
U1
D L
S F
C
DC
INPUT
VO
+–
RFC
CBYPASS
RUVLO
CCLAMP
Drain
Clamp
Snubber
Power
Transformer
Output
Inductor
Bias
Voltage Output
Capacitor
Input
Return
PI-2873-062204
FEEDBACK CIRCUIT
CONTROL
CONTROL
DPA-Switch
TL431 with
Frequency
Compensation
CFC
++
Figure 1. Typical Configuration of DPA-Swtich in a Single-Ended DC-DC Forward Converter with One Output.
July 2004
AN-31
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2
Description Symbol Min Typ Max Units Comment
Input
Input Voltage
Input Voltage UV Turn ON
Input Voltage UV Turn Off
Input Voltage OV Turn On
Input Voltage OV Turn Off
VIN
36
29
48
75
36
72
90
VDC
VDC
VDC
VDC
VDC
Typical operational range
Output
Output Voltage
Output Ripple and Noise
Output Current
VOUT
VRIPPLE
IOUT
4.8
0
5.00
50
5.2
6.00
V
mV
A
±4%
20 MHz Bandwidth
Line Regulation
Load Regulation
±0.2
±0.5
%
%
Transient Response Peak
Deviation
Transient Response Recovery
3
200
% of
VOUT
µs
50-75% Load step, 100 mA/µs
48 VDC input
To 1% of final output voltage,
50-75% load step, 48 VDC input
Total Output Power
Continuous Output Power
POUT
30
W
Efficiency
Low-Cost Design
Enhanced (non-sync rect.)
Synchronous Rectified Design
ηCost
ηEnhanced
ηSyncRect
84
87
91
%
%
%
Measured at POUT (30 W),
25 °C, 48 VDC Input
Environmental
Input-Output Isolation Voltage
Ambient Temperature
TAMB
1500
-40
85
VDC
°C
Free convection, sea level
Figure 1 shows a typical implementation of DPA-Switch in
a power supply with a single regulated output. This design
guide discusses considerations for selection of components
for a practical implementation of the circuit in Figure 1. It
also addresses options and tradeoffs in cost, efficiency and
complexity that include the substitution of synchronous rectifiers
and alternative generation of the bias voltage.
System Requirements
The design begins with an evaluation of the requirements.
Table 1 gives the specifications for the example converters
described here, that have been constructed and evaluated as
engineering prototypes. Variants of the basic design achieve
higher efficiencies with minor increases in complexity.
Input Voltage Range
The actual input voltage range required for operation of the
converter is greater than that indicated by the specification. The
specification requires the converter to operate and to deliver
full performance at a minimum input of 36 V. Therefore, the
designer must guarantee that the converter becomes active and
fully functional at a voltage that is lower than the minimum.
Tolerance variations of the Line Undervoltage Threshold of
DPA-Switch with prudent design margin put the practical
minimum operating voltage closer to 30 V. Similarly, the
converter must be designed to operate at voltages higher than
the maximum specified input. The actual input voltage range
should be considered to be from about 30 V to 90 V for the
typical nominal input voltage of 48 VDC.
Output Characteristics
The output voltage can be maintained to ±4% over the range of
line, load and operational temperature range with an ordinary
feedback circuit that uses a TL431 regulator. Transient response
is controlled with proper frequency compensation. The design of
the feedback network with guidance for selection of component
values is addressed in a separate section. Ripple and noise are
strongly influenced by the size of the output inductor and the
choice of output capacitors. These topics are discussed more
thoroughly later in this document.
Table 1. Typical Specifications for a Single Output DC-DC Converter.
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Figure 2. Methods for Generation of Bias Voltage.
U2
D L
S X F
C
CONTROL
CONTROL
DPA-Switch
PI-3468-042303
+
(a)
DC Input Derived
U2
D L
S X F
C
CONTROL
CONTROL
DPA-Switch
PI-3469-042303
+
(b)
Transformer Bias (unregulated)
U2
D L
S X F
C
CONTROL
CONTROL
DPA-Switch
PI-3470-042303
+
(c)
Output Coupled Inductor Bias
U2
D L
S X F
C
CONTROL
CONTROL
DPA-Switch
PI-3471-042303
+
(d)
Transformer Bias (regulated)
Output Rectifiers
Output rectification may be accomplished with discrete Schottky
diodes for lowest cost or synchronous rectifiers for highest
efficiency. This document discusses synchronous rectification
in greater detail in a separate section. Ultra-fast PN junction
diodes are not suitable at DPA-Switch operating frequencies.
AN-31
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Efficiency
Designing a DC-DC converter with DPA-Switch involves
several engineering tradeoffs that weigh efficiency against cost
and complexity. The circuit configuration in Figure 1 achieves
efficiencies greater than 85% over the range of input voltage
at medium loads. In typical applications without synchronous
rectifcation, approximately 25% of the total power loss will be in
the DPA-Switch (see DPA-Switch data sheet), 40% in the output
rectifiers, and 30% in the magnetic devices. The remainder is
distributed among other devices and circuit traces.
Higher efficiencies of approximately 91% can be obtained
when Schottky rectifiers are replaced by synchronous rectifiers,
allowing lower voltage drops. The efficiency can be raised
even higher with the use of the next larger device in the
DPA-Switch family that has lower RDS(ON). Further increases in
device size may not improve the efficiency due to increased
device switching losses. Losses in the magnetic devices can
be reduced by using larger cores and by switching at 300 kHz
instead of 400 kHz. All these alternatives have compromises in
size, cost and complexity that the designer must evaluate.
Temperature
DC-DC converters usually must operate over an extended
range of temperature that goes beyond the limits for ordinary
consumer electronics. Designers should be aware that the
characteristics of passive components are likely to change
significantly with temperature. Attention to these effects to
choose suitable components can prevent unexpected and
undesirable behavior.
Designers must pay particular attention to the selection of the
output capacitors and the components in the feedback circuit
to guarantee specified performance throughout the temperature
range. The details are addressed later in the sections on Output
Capacitor Selection and Feedback Design.
Bias Voltage
There are four ways to generate the bias voltage required for
operation of DPA-Switch:
(a) DC input derived
(b) Transformer bias (unregulated)
(c) Output coupled inductor winding
(d) Transformer bias (regulated)
Figure 2 illustrates the four alternatives. Each one must provide
a minimum of 8 V at the collector of the optocoupler under worst
case operating conditions (minimum input voltage and minimum
load). The lowest bias voltage under typical conditions should be
12 V. The output coupled inductor and the regulated transformer
bias techniques give the highest efficiency of the four solutions
because the voltage across the optocoupler is controlled. This
is countered by increased complexity. Optocoupler dissipation
can be significant and should be verified. Maximum optocoupler
phototransistor current is equal to the maximum CONTROL
pin current (IC(SKIP)) for the selected DPA-Switch. Maximum
dissipation therefore occurs at the highest bias voltage (highest
input voltage for (a) and (b)) and minimum load. Table 2
provides a comparison of complexity vs performance for all
the solutions.
a) The DC input derived bias is the simplest of the three
solutions. It uses a Zener diode between the positive DC input
and the collector of the phototransistor of the optocoupler to
reduce the maximum collector-to-emitter voltage, and more
importantly, to limit the dissipation in the optocoupler. The
penalty for simplicity is a reduction in efficiency that can
be significant at high input voltages. This alternative is best
for industrial applications where the input voltage is low
(18 V to 36 V). The input voltage in industrial applications
is usually low enough to eliminate the Zener diode because
the breakdown voltages for standard optocouplers can be as
high as 70 V. Designers must check the maximum power
dissipation in the optocoupler in either case.
b) The transformer bias (unregulated) is created from a winding
on the power transformer. The forward bias winding
should be connected to the rectifier in a polarity such that it
conducts when the DPA-Switch is on. Since the bias voltage
is proportional to the input voltage, efficiency is reduced at
high input voltages, but the effect is less than with the direct
connection to the input. Again, the designer needs to check
the power dissipation in the optocoupler at the maximum bias
voltage. For this bias type, worst case is minimum output
load and high input voltage. Flyback bias windings are not
recommended for DPA-Switch applications since they will
affect the transformer reset.
c) Output coupled inductor bias uses a winding on the output
inductor to develop the bias voltage. This technique
provides a well regulated bias voltage when the converter
operates in the continuous conduction mode. Regulation
is accomplished by phasing the winding such that the bias
voltage is proportional to the output voltage by transformer
action when the DPA-Switch turns off. The penalty for the
higher efficiency is the cost and complexity of a custom output
inductor. The bias voltage can be adjusted by modifying turns
ratio, bias capacitor size and minimum load on the main
output. The designer should verify a minimum bias voltage
of 8 V at minimum load and maximum input voltage.
d) The transformer bias (regulated) solution peforms the
same function as the output coupled inductor bias (c). The
bias voltage regulation is not quite as good as with the
output coupled inductor bias. However, the solution does
provide a reasonably constant bias voltage over a variety
AN-31
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Table 2. Bias Voltage Solution Comparison.
of input voltage and output load conditions. This solution
works best if the independent inductor is maintained in
the continuous conduction mode. The solution can be
implemented with a low current, low cost (off-the-shelf)
inductor, but the inductance value will be high enough to
ensure continuous conduction mode over the majority of
operating conditions.
Transformer Design
The power transformer is critical to the success of the converter
design. Requirements for efficiency, component height and
footprint will determine the details of construction. System
engineers and circuit designers may choose to specify the
electrical parameters and mechanical limits, and delegate the
construction details to a supplier of custom transformers. Use the
PI Expert design tool to determine the proper parameters. This
section gives guidance for specification of the transformer.
Turns Ratio
The most important parameter for the power transformer is
the primary-to-secondary turns ratio. It must be low enough
to provide the regulated output voltage at the minimum input
voltage. Determine the minimum input voltage from the system
specification and the tolerance of the line under-voltage lockout
circuit.
Whereas the minimum input voltage may be specified at
36 V, worst case tolerances of the under-voltage circuit are
likely to allow the DPA-Switch to operate at an input as low as
29 V. From this voltage, subtract the estimated drain-to-source
voltage of DPA-Switch at the maximum load. Reduce it further
by an estimate of the voltage drop from the high frequency AC
resistance of the transformer windings at full load.
Multiply the result by the maximum guaranteed duty ratio and
divide by the sum of the output voltage and the drop on the
output rectifier at full load. The duty ratio can be greater than
50% because DPA-Switch uses a voltage mode control. The
quotient is the upper limit for the turns ratio.
Core and Copper
The actual number of turns for the transformer will depend
on the dimensions of the particular core. The core material
should be low loss at the DPA-Switch operating frequencies.
Technical data on properties of ferrite cores are available from
several suppliers. See references [1], [2] and [3]. Skin effect
and proximity effect will set a practical limit for wire size. Foil
windings become attractive when the output current is higher
than about 6 A.
Thermal considerations often dominate selection of the core.
The selection of the core is a complex trade-off between winding
area, core cross-section and ratio of core surface area to core
volume. These parameters determine the power loss as well
as the thermal resistance of the transformer. A small core may
meet the requirements in every respect except temperature
rise, forcing the use of a larger core. The only practical
way to check temperature rise is with bench evaluation of a
prototype. Temperature must be measured at the hottest spot
in the transformer, which is usually next to the center of the
core under the windings. Wire temperatures above 110 °C need
special considerations and UL Class F materials.
Other Practical Considerations
Minimize the number of turns within the limits of other
constraints. Resistive losses depend on the length of the wire.
Maximize the amount of copper (wire) that can be fitted within
the winding window. Leakage inductance must be kept low to
reduce losses associated with clamp components. This is best
accomplished with a split primary construction that has the
secondary between the layers of the primary winding. Also,
all transformers should have no air gap.
Bias Type Input Voltage
Range (V) Efficiency Cost Complexity Comment
DC Input
Derived Bias 18 to 36 ⇓ ⇓ Recommended
for 18 to 36 V only
Transfer Bias
(unregulated) 36 to 72 ⇔ ⇓ Recommended for
low-cost design
Output Coupled
Inductor Bias 36 to 72 ⇑ ⇑
Only recommended if
supply already requires
coupled output inductor
Transformer Bias
(regulated) 36 to 72 ⇑ ⇔ Recommended for high
efficiency designs
AN-31
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If the transformer has a winding for the bias voltage, be sure
that it has enough turns to maintain a minimum of 8 V bias at
the lowest input voltage. Perform bench verification to confirm
that the converter shuts off at low input voltages by virtue of
the under-voltage lockout circuit, and not because the bias
voltage is too low.
With the actual number of turns on the transformer, verify that
the duty ratio to regulate the output at the minimum input voltage
is less than the minimum DCMAX specified for DPA-Switch.
The AC flux density contributes to the core losses. For this
reason the AC flux density should be maintained in the range
between 1000 and 1500 gauss (0.1 to 0.15 tesla).
Output Inductor
For a single output application with no bias winding, the
inductor can be a standard off-the-shelf component. Inductors
with multiple windings are typically custom designs.
The inductor value is determined chiefly by the amount of current
ripple that the designer is willing to tolerate. Higher ripple
current will allow an inductor that is smaller both electrically
and physically. The consequence of higher ripple current is the
requirement for more output capacitance with lower equivalent
series resistance (ESR) to meet the specification for output ripple.
Higher current ripple in the inductor also translates to higher
peak current in the DPA-Switch for a given output power. It also
leads to generally greater loss and lower efficiency because the
RMS value of all the currents will be higher.
A convenient design parameter for selection of the inductor is
K∆I, defined as the ratio of the peak-to-peak ripple current to
the average current in the inductor. Smaller K∆I corresponds to
90%
86%
88%
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
DC Input Voltage
Efficiency (%)
PI-2886-042204
80%
82%
84%
DPA424
DPA425
DPA426
Figure 3. Efficiency of the Low Cost EP-21 Prototype with Different
Devices in the DPA-Switch Family (Synchronous
Rectification Would Improve Efficiency).
lower ripple and a larger inductor. Recommended values for
K∆I
are between 15 and 20 percent. The choice of K∆I involves a
trade-off between the size of the inductor, the number and type
of output capacitors, efficiency, and cost. Higher values of K∆I
are not recommended, as these higher ripple currents increase
both the stress and the ripple voltage on the output capacitor.
Whether the inductor is standard off-the-shelf or custom, the
design should minimize the number of turns to reduce the
resistive loss. The construction should also use a low loss core
material.
With user input, the PI Expert design tool computes the
inductance, the RMS current and the peak stored energy to aid in
the selection or specification of the inductor. Peak stored energy
is a useful parameter to select designs that use a closed toroid
core, where magnetic saturation is generally a concern.
Additional Winding for Bias Voltage
If the configuration in Figure 2 (c) is chosen for generation of the
bias voltage, choose the number of turns on the bias winding to
give 12 V at the optocoupler under nominal conditions. Compute
the required number of turns from the lowest regulated output
voltage and the highest forward voltage drops for the output
rectifier and the bias rectifier. Check the bias voltage at minimum
load, maximum line, and add a preload if necessary to maintain
the bias voltage at 8 V minimum. It may also be necessary to
increase the bias winding turns to meet the minimum voltage
requirement with a reasonably small pre-load.
DPA-Switch Selection
The first criterion for the selection of the DPA-Switch is peak
current capability. From the turns ratio of the transformer and
the peak current in the output inductor, estimate the peak current
in the primary of the transformer. The magnetization current of
the transformer should be negligible for this estimate. For lowest
cost, select the smallest DPA-Switch that has a minimum current
limit that is at least 10% greater than the maximum primary
current. The allowance of 10% greater current gives design
margin with the ability to respond to transient loading.
The second criterion for the selection is power dissipation. The
smallest DPA-Switch that will handle the current may dissipate
too much power to meet the efficiency requirements. Even if
efficiency is not a concern, the smallest device may get too hot if
system constraints prevent good thermal design. Multiplication
of the RDS(ON) by the square of the RMS current in the primary
gives a reasonable estimate of the power dissipation in the
DPA-Switch. The DPA-Switch dissipates approximately 25%
of the total system loss in designs without synchronous
rectifiers.
AN-31
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If power dissipation is a problem with the smallest device, select
the next larger device and program the current limit with the
X pin to 10% above the peak primary current. This is done to
limit overload power capability. Refer to the DPA-Switch data
sheet to determine the value of the resistor on the X pin that
corresponds to the desired current limit.
Figure 3 illustrates how the efficiency is related to the selection
of the DPA-Switch. Devices with lower RDS(ON) dissipate less
power where resistive voltage drop dominates the loss. Thus,
the efficiency is higher for larger devices at low input voltage.
At higher input voltages the RMS current in the DPA-Switch
decreases and the loss from capacitance on the drain increases,
so the lower RDS(ON) has virtually no effect on efficiency.
Clamp Circuit
All applications must protect the DPA-Switch from excessive
drain voltage. Figure 1 shows a simple and effective solution.
A Zener diode from the drain to source provides a hard clamp.
The 30 W prototype example (Table 1), uses a 150 V Zener to
guarantee substantial margin from the breakdown voltage of
220 V. A small capacitor across the primary of the transformer
may be necessary in conjunction with the Zener clamp (see
Figure 4).
The designer should put a placeholder for this capacitor on
the initial prototype. In some designs there is sufficient stray
capacitance on the primary of the transformer to remove the
need for this clamp capacitor. Bench tests will determine
whether the capacitor is required to maintain safe drain-to-
source voltages. In normal steady-state operation, the capacitor
CCP across the primary of the transformer absorbs energy from
leakage inductance to keep the drain-to-source voltage below
the Zener voltage. There is an optimum value for CCP that
typically ranges between 10 pF and 100 pF for converters in
the range of 10 W to 40 W.
The value of CCP depends on the leakage inductance and the
peak current. The proper value of capacitance will allow most
of the energy in the leakage inductance to be recovered during
the next switching cycle. Too little capacitance will cause the
Zener diode to conduct. Dissipation in the Zener will reduce
efficiency. Too much capacitance will also reduce efficiency
because it will increase turn-on losses in the DPA-Switch and
may also interfere with the reset of the transformer.
The Zener diode does not conduct during normal steady-state
operation, but it is required to limit the drain voltage during
start-up, transient loading and overload conditions.
At higher powers, the clamp capacitor value (CCP), becomes a
limiting factor on the efficiency of the power supply. Different
techniques can be used for these higher power applications
(above approximately 40 W). Figures 5 and 6 show a non-
dissipative clamp technique that also resets the transformer.
See references [4] and [5] for a description of this technique.
Transformer Reset Circuit
The flux in the magnetizing inductance of the transformer
must be reset in each switching cycle to maintain volt-seconds
PI-2875-062204
D
S
C
CONTROL
CONTROL
VR1
CS RS
DC INPUT
DC INPUT
DPA-Switch
U1
CCP
+
PI-3474-032603
D
S
CONTROL
CONTROL
DPA-Switch
DC
Input
Voltage
D2
L1
D1
C1
V1
VDS
+
Figure 4. Components of the Transformer Clamp and Reset Circuit. Figure 4. LC (Inductor Capacitor) Reset and Clamp.
AN-31
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balance and prevent saturation. Since real transformers have
finite inductance, they store parasitic energy that is represented
as a magnetizing current.
The magnetizing inductance cannot store very much energy
before it saturates. Since a saturated transformer behaves like
a short circuit, external circuitry must manage the removal
of the energy from the magnetization inductance (reset the
transformer) on each switching cycle.
This transformer reset will require the voltage on the DRAIN
pin to rise above the input voltage. The designer needs to be
sure that the transformer reset does not cause voltage overstress
on the DRAIN pin of the DPA-Switch.
Figure 4 shows the components for the circuit that resets the
magnetizing energy in the transformer to a safe value at the
end of each switching cycle. The heart of the circuit is the
series RC network (RS and CS) that is connected across the
output rectifier.
When the DPA-Switch turns off, current in the magnetizing
inductance leaves the transformer through the secondary
winding. The capacitor charges as the magnetizing current
reduces to zero. The capacitor must be small enough to allow
the magnetizing current to go to zero within the minimum
offtime. An additional restriction on the size of the capacitor is
that it must be large enough to keep the drain-to-source voltage
below the voltage of the Zener clamp under normal operating
conditions. The resistor in the reset network damps oscillations
from the interaction of the capacitor with parasitic inductance.
The value of the resistor is typically between 1 Ω and 5 Ω.
A different reset circuit is required for applications higher than
about 40 W. Figure 6 shows an example of a 70 W converter
that uses the circuit of Figure 5 to reset the transformer and to
limit the voltage on the DPA-Switch.
Verification of Transformer Reset
Users should confirm that the transformer resets under worst
case conditions at the lowest and highest input voltages with
measurements on the bench. Figure 7 illustrates three situations
that show proper transformer reset with the reset circuit in
Figure 4. Three examples of improper transformer reset are
shown in Figure 8.
The best way to assess the reset characteristics is to observe the
drain-to-source voltage on the DPA-Switch. Figure 7 (a) shows
the voltage on the prototype example when it operates from an
input of 72 VDC. It is operating at full load with a reset capacitor
(CS) of 2.2 nF across the output rectifier. The clamp capacitor
on the primary is 47 pF. See Design Idea DI-24 (available on
www.powerint.com) for a circuit example.
The figure shows the important intervals of the waveform
within one switching period TS. DPA-Switch is conducting
during the time tON = D TS, where D is the duty ratio. Flux in
Figure 6. A 70 W DC-DC Converter that uses an Alternative Circuit to Reset the Transformer.
AN-31
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PI-2884-061002
02.5 5
0
150
100
200
50
Time (µs)
Voltage (V)Voltage (V)Voltage (V)
250
300
-50
-100
02.5 5
0
150
100
200
50
Time (µs)
250
300
-50
-100
02.5 5
0
150
100
200
50
Time (µs)
250
300
-50
-100
(a)
(b)
(c)
TS
tON tRZ tRN tV0
02.5 5
0
150
100
200
50
Time (µs)
250
300
-50
-100
02.5 5
0
150
100
200
50
Time (µs)
250
300
-50
-100
PI-2885-061002
02.5 5
0
150
100
200
50
Time (µs)
250
300
-50
-100
(a)
(b)
(c)
Voltage (V) Voltage (V) Voltage (V)
Figure 7. Normal DPA-Switch Drain Waveforms Showing Correct
Transformer Reset. a) VIN = 72 V, b) VIN = 48 V,
c) VIN = 36 V.
Figure 8. Illustration of Three Situations with Improper
Transformer Reset. a) VIN = 72 V, b) VIN = 36 V,
c) VIN = 36 V.
AN-31
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10
the transformer increases in the positive direction during tON,
and resets to zero during the interval tRZ. All the energy stored
in the magnetizing inductance is removed during tRZ to charge
the reset capacitor and the clamp capacitor to maximum voltage.
The flux increases in the negative direction during the interval
tRN as the reset capacitor and the clamp capacitor discharge
into the magnetizing inductance. The flux remains a constant
negative value during the interval tV0, where the voltage on the
transformer windings is zero. It is easy to see that the primary
voltage is zero during tV0 because the drain voltage is the same
as the input of 72 V. The negative magnetizing current circulates
in the secondary winding during tV0.
Figure 7(b) shows the drain voltage on the same circuit when
it operates at the nominal input of 48 VDC. The larger duty
ratio is consistent with the lower input voltage. Note that the
intervals tRZ and tRN are the same as at 72 V input, but now tV0
is nearly zero.
Figure 7(c) shows the situation at input voltage of 36 VDC, with
a corresponding larger duty ratio. The transformer has reset to
zero flux because the drain voltage has reached its peak during
the interval tRZ. The drain voltage is in the region of negative
flux when the DPA-Switch turns on.
Peak drain voltage under normal operating conditions should be
less than 150 V. This includes peaks in the drain voltage from the
reset of both leakage inductance and magnetizing inductance.
Figure 8 shows three cases of improper transformer reset. The
prototype example has been modified to create these illustrations.
The RC network has been removed from the output rectifier to
obtain the waveform in Figure 8(a). The clamp capacitor CCP on
the primary is 47 pF. The magnetizing energy resets into only
the clamp capacitor and other stray capacitance. Consequently,
at 72 V input the drain voltage goes higher than desired. The
figure shows the maximum drain voltage at 152 V, in contrast
to 140 V in Figure 7(a) with a proper reset network. The Zener
clamp voltage of 150 V is specified at a current of 1 mA.
Although the Zener clamp just barely conducts at 152 V, there
is not sufficient margin in this design to tolerate a transformer
with lower primary inductance.
Figure 8(b) illustrates the situation of too much capacitance. The
RC reset network has been restored with a proper capacitance
of 2.2 nF, but CCP is increased to 470 pF, ten times the original
value. The waveform shows operation at 36 VDC input and
full load. The flux in the transformer has just barely reset to
zero, as the DPA-Switch turns on at the end of the tRZ interval.
A larger magnetizing inductance or a lower input voltage would
not allow the transformer to reset.
The final example of an improper transformer reset is
Figure 8(c). Primary clamp capacitor CCP is restored to its
original value of 47 pF, but the reset capacitor is increased to
47 nF. The converter is operating at 36 VDC. The drain voltage
shows clearly that the transformer is not resetting completely.
The DPA-Switch turns on within the interval tRZ. The flux in
the transformer has not returned to zero. A small change in
operating conditions could cause the transformer to saturate
on every cycle or to run so close to saturation that it could not
accommodate change in duty ratio from a load step.
Output Capacitors
The ripple current in the output inductor generates a voltage ripple
on the output capacitors. Part of the ripple voltage comes from
the integration of the current by the capacitance, and part comes
from the voltage that appears across the capacitorʼs equivalent
series resistance (ESR). The capacitor must be selected such that
the capacitance is high enough and the ESR is low enough to
give acceptable voltage ripple with the chosen output inductor.
Usually most of the ripple voltage comes from the ESR. Ripple
voltage that is dominated by ESR has a triangular waveform
like the ripple current in the inductor. Ripple voltage that is
dominated by the capacitance has a waveform with segments
that are parabolic instead of linear.
Output capacitors in DC-DC converters are typically solid
tantalum. They are a good choice because of their low ESR and
low impedance at the frequencies used in these converters. The
ESR is also an important element in the design of the feedback
loop. In this regard, a moderate amount of ESR is desirable.
The section on Feedback Design elaborates on the values of
the components in the feedback circuit.
It is important for designers to know that the value of ESR
may change significantly over the specified temperature range.
The output ripple and the stability of the control loop can be
affected by the change in ESR. It is necessary to evaluate
prototype hardware at the extremes of temperature to confirm
satisfactory performance.
The voltage rating for the capacitors is typically 25% higher
than the maximum operating voltage for reliability. The derating
factor is thus 80%. For example, a 5 V output would have a
capacitor that is rated for either 6.3 V or 10 V. The lower voltage
capacitor would be smaller, whereas the higher voltage capacitor
would have a lower failure rate in the application.
Feedback Design
Stability is an important consideration for a switching power
supply. Three parameters that describe the characteristics of the
control loop are crossover frequency, phase margin and gain
margin. The crossover frequency is the frequency where the
magnitude of the loop gain passes through 0 dB. It is a measure
of the systemʼs bandwidth.
AN-31
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U1
U2
D
S
C
OUTPUT
OUTPUT
RETURN
R6
L2
R12
R10 C10
R11
C14 R9
R4
C5
U3
TL431
C6
C11
C16
PI-2876-062204
CONTROL
CONTROL
DPA-Switch
Input
Return
+
Figure 9. Essential Components of the Feedback Circuit. The Schematic Does Not Show ESR of the Output Capacitors (Component
Designators are the Same as in the EP-21 Prototype).
The phase margin is specified at the crossover frequency. It
is the difference between the phase of the loop gain and 180
degrees. A stringent specification will call for a phase margin
of at least 60 degrees under worst case conditions. In no case
should the phase margin be less than 45 degrees. This means the
phase would have to decrease by that amount for the system to
become unstable. Phase margin is also related to the dynamic
characteristics of the system. A low phase margin suggests an
oscillatory response to a load step or other disturbance.
It is also important that the loop gain decrease in magnitude
beyond the crossover frequency. This requirement is generally
specified as gain margin. Gain margin is the difference between
0 dB and the magnitude of the loop gain at the frequency where
the phase is 180 degrees. An acceptable gain margin is greater
than 10 dB. This means the magnitude would have to increase by
that amount for the system to become unstable. Loop gain should
be measured at worst case conditions (generally maximum
input voltage with maximum load) and at the extremes of the
specified ambient temperature, since important component
parameters (especially capacitor ESR) can change greatly with
temperature.
Stabilizing a high frequency forward DC-DC converter presents
some challenges due to the inherently high bandwidth of this
topology. Many DC-DC converter designs use cycle-by-cycle
current-mode control. The DPA-Switch uses classic voltage
mode control to allow operation at duty ratios greater than 50%
without the need for the stabilizing ramp (“slope compensation”)
required with current-mode control. The fundamental system
characteristics of the forward converter in continuous conduction
mode with voltage mode control call for a compensation
circuit with multiple poles and zeros to achieve the desired
loop response.
The crossover frequency for a control loop that uses
DPA-Switch in a forward converter with an optocoupler should
be limited to 10 kHz or less at maximum input voltage and
room temperature. The DPA-Switch has one internal pole at
approximately 30 kHz to filter switching noise. Other poles at
higher frequencies contribute additional phase shift at 30 kHz.
The optocoupler has two poles at approximately 100 kHz. The
phase shift from these poles, combined with the phase shift
introduced by the LC filter at the output of the converter, is
difficult to compensate above 10 kHz.
The objective of the feedback design is to reduce the magnitude
of the loop gain to zero dB at a frequency of 10 kHz or less with
a phase margin near 60 degrees. Although system requirements
and the DPA-Switch fix some quantities that determine loop
characteristics, the designer can manipulate many components
in the feedback circuit to optimize loop stability. Figure 8
shows the essential components of a feedback circuit that uses
an ordinary TL431 regulator to achieve the high loop gain
AN-31
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12
required for tight DC voltage regulation. Not shown in the
circuit diagram is the ESR of the output capacitors. The ESR
is also an important element in the frequency compensation of
the feedback loop.
Output LC Filter
The filter formed by the output inductor and the output capacitors
contributes two poles to the loop response at the filterʼs resonant
frequency. Since the filter is a resonant circuit with relatively
low loss, the gain and phase change rather abruptly near the
resonant frequency. Consequently, the poles and zeros for
shaping the loop response should either avoid this region or
compensate for the resonance.
Proper placement of the resonant frequency of the output
filter will avoid complications in the design of the feedback
loop. The position of the resonant frequency should allow the
designer to shape the desired response with a limited number of
compensation components of reasonable size. The recommended
resonant frequency for an output filter that uses low ESR
tantalum capacitors in a forward converter with DPA-Switch
and optocoupler feedback is between 4 kHz and 6 kHz. This
value is consistent with the inductor and capacitor values for
desirable ripple current and ripple voltage.
0.1 1 10 100 1 k 10 k
50
60
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
100 k
270
240
210
180
150
120
90
60
30
0
-30
-60
-90
PI-2878-032603
180 Degrees Phase
0 Degrees Phase Margin
Phase Margin
60 Degrees
Z1
Gain Margin
20 dB
0 Degrees Phase
180 Degrees Phase Margin
56 dB Loop Gain
0 dB Gain
1-Gain
1-Phase
P1 P2
P3
P4 P6
Z2 Z3 Z4
Frequency (Hz)
Gain (dB)
Phase Margin (degrees)
P5
Figure 10. Gain and Phase of a Typical Feedback Loop for DC-DC Forward Converter with DPA-Switch. Markers Show Locations of Major
Poles and Zeros.
The output capacitor ESR contributes a zero that compensates for
one of the poles from the filter. However, for low ESR tantalum
or organic electrolyte capacitors, this zero usually occurs too
high in frequency to substantially offset the effects of the filter
within the desired loop bandwidth. In the prototype example, the
output filter capacitors are 100 µF, with a maximum specified
ESR of 100 milliohms. The ESR zero is thus at approximately
16 kHz, well beyond the 4 kHz LC filter resonant frequency.
Actual ESR is approximately 80 milliohms, placing the zero
typically at 20 kHz. In situations where standard low ESR
electrolytic capacitors can be used, the higher ESR may place
the ESR zero at a sufficiently low frequency to add significant
additional phase margin.
DPA-Switch Compensation
The network of C6 and R4 at the CONTROL pin of DPA-Switch
provides compensation for the feedback loop in addition to
other functions. The capacitance of C6 with R4 and its own
ESR plus the impedance of the CONTROL pin impedance
provide a pole in the loop gain, followed by a zero from R4
and the ESR of C6.
Suggested values of C6 are between 47 µF and 100 µF. This
range of values will generally be sufficient to provide desirable
AN-31
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adjustments to the loop gain and to allow the capacitor to perform
its other functions in the system.
The zero introduced by R4 and the ESR of C6 should be at
approximately 25% of the output filter resonant frequency. This
placement allows maximum gain reduction while minimizing the
phase lag introduced by this network at the resonant frequency.
In the prototype example, C6 is 68 µF with an ESR of about
1.6 Ω. The impedance at the CONTROL pin of DPA-Switch
is typically 15 Ω. These values put the pole at approximately
130 Hz and the zero at approximately 900 Hz. High frequency
bypass capacitor C5 is small enough to have a negligible effect
on the loop gain.
Optocoupler Compensation
The current transfer ratio (CTR) of the optocoupler is a major
contributor to the magnitude of the loop gain near the crossover
frequency. Equally important is the resistor R6 in series with
the optocoupler LED. Selection for either of these elements
is not arbitrary, as the optocoupler provides power to the
DPA-Switch during normal operation.
The combination of optocoupler and series resistor must
deliver the maximum specified CONTROL pin current for the
DPA-Switch at minimum specified CTR. In most cases, an
optocoupler with a CTR between 100% and 200% will suffice.
The designer then selects R6 to provide the LED current required
at minimum CTR with a saturated TL431. The network of
R12 and C16 in parallel with R6 creates a zero that boosts
the gain and phase to compensate one of the poles from the
output filter. The position of the zero is generally determined
empirically to achieve the desired phase margin. It is typically
set at a frequency between one and three times the resonant
frequency of the output filter. Resistor R12 limits the boost in
gain at high frequencies.
TL431 Compensation
The purpose of the TL431 is to provide high loop gain at
low frequencies. Its contribution is not necessary at higher
frequencies where the optocoupler provides adequate gain.
Therefore, the feedback circuit has compensation around the
TL431 to maximize its contribution at very low frequencies
and to remove its influence at higher frequencies.
The connection of C14 and R9 between the cathode and the
reference terminal of the TL431 allows maximum loop gain at
DC for the best voltage regulation. In the prototype example,
capacitor C14 forms an integrator that reduces the contribution
of the TL431 by 20 dB per decade. Resistor R9 with R10 sets the
minimum gain from the TL431 and introduces a zero in the loop
gain. The zero in the prototype example is at about 16 Hz.
Another zero, local to the TL431, is formed by C14 and R9
at about 720 Hz. The location of this zero is not critical for
normal operation in continuous conduction mode, and does not
appear in the loop gain of this example. It becomes important at
very light loads where the converter operates in discontinuous
conduction mode. The loop gain characteristic for discontinuous
conduction mode is fundamentally different from this example
of continuous conduction mode. The most significant effect is
that the loop gain will generally have a much lower crossover
frequency that depends on the load. The crossover frequency
could easily fall into the region where the TL431 contributes
significantly to the loop gain.
Loop Gain of Prototype Circuit
Figure 10 shows the magnitude and phase of the loop gain of the
prototype circuit for an input voltage of 72 V at a load current
of 5 A. The highest input voltage is typically the worst case in
forward converters because that is the condition for highest gain,
yielding the highest bandwidth and lowest phase margin.
The upper curve in Figure 10 is the magnitude of the loop
gain in units of dB. The lower curve is the phase in units of
degrees, with the scale shifted by 180 degrees to give the phase
margin directly. The markers Z1 through Z4 and P1 through
P6 show respectively the frequencies of the significant zeroes
and poles.
The integrator formed by C14, R9 and R10 reduces the gain
from its DC value such that the TL431 makes essentially no
contribution to the gain at frequencies higher than Z1. The
asymptotes of the DC value and the 20 dB per decade slope of
the integrator create the pole at P1.
Gain is reduced by the pole at P2 that is formed by capacitor
C6 with its ESR, resistor R4, and the internal impedance of
the CONTROL pin of the DPA-Switch. The phase receives
a boost from the zero formed by C6 and R4 with the ESR of
C6 at Z2. The resistor R4 augments the ESR of the capacitor.
Use a tantalum capacitor for C6 so that the total resistance
can be adjusted by R4. The ESR of an aluminum capacitor
will generally be too large to allow the desired shaping of the
frequency response. Capacitor C5 provides a low impedance
source for pulses of current into the CONTROL pin. Its effect
on the control loop is minor, appearing at P6, well beyond the
0 dB crossover frequency.
The zero at Z2 provides partial cancellation of the pair of poles P3,
P4 that originate from the output inductor and output capacitors
of the forward converter. The network of C16, R6 and R12 gives
additional cancellation with a zero at Z3. The ESR of the output
capacitors gives a final zero at Z4. The internal high frequency
filter of the DPA-Switch provides the pole at P5.
AN-31
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14
The magnitude of the gain at frequencies greater than Z1 is related
directly to the current transfer ratio (CTR) of the optocoupler.
Therefore, the CTR must be controlled to maintain a stable and
well-behaved system. Designers should choose an optocoupler
that has a CTR in the range of 100% to 200% at the maximum
CONTROL pin current of 12 mA. The phototransistor of the
optocoupler must also have a breakdown voltage greater than
the maximum bias voltage.
Figure 10 shows that this example has a desirable phase margin
of 60 degrees and a comfortable gain margin of 20 dB. Sufficient
margin is required in the design of the feedback loop to allow
for tolerances in the CTR of the optocoupler, changes in ESR
of the output capacitor, and the change in gain with operating
voltage. The ESR can change significantly with temperature.
This should be a primary consideration in the selection of output
capacitors. The design must also allow for tolerance variations
in all other components.
Operation at No Load
Those who design or specify DC-DC converters should
pay particular attention to requirements for minimum load.
The control characteristics are different for operation in the
continuous conduction mode (moderate to heavy loads) and
discontinuous conduction mode (light loads). The boundary
between the two modes occurs at the load where K∆I = 2 (without
synchronous rectification).
U1
DPA425R
D1
BAV
19WS
D2
C5
220 nF
VR1
SMBJ
150 C6
68 µF
10 V
C7
1 nF
1.5 kV R14
10 Ω
T1
R3
18.2 kΩ
1%
R1
619 kΩ
1%
R4
1.0 Ω
C10
100 µF
10 V
C11
100 µF
10 V
C12
1 µF
10 V
36-75 VDC
L1
1 µH
2.5 A L2
C1, C2 & C3
1 µF
100 V
D L
S X F
C
CONTROL
CONTROL
U2
PC357N1T
PI-3472-040903
DPA-Switch
5 V, 6 A
RTN
Q2
Si4888
DY
R15
10 ΩR16
10 kΩ
D4
BAV19WS
R17
10 ΩQ1
Si4888
DY
C4
4.7 µF
20 V U2
D3
BAV19WS
U3
LM431AIM3
R9
220 Ω
R11
10.0 kΩ
1%
R10
10.0 kΩ
1%
R12
5.1 Ω
R7
10 kΩ
C14
1 µF
C13
10 µF
10 V
C16
100 nF
R6
150 Ω
VIN
+
VIN
C17
3300 pF
Figure 11. Example of DPA-Switch in a Single-Ended DC-DC Forward Converter with Synchronous Rectification.
The two modes have different control characteristics. The
converter in discontinuous conduction mode will usually have
a slower response to transients and higher ripple voltage at the
output than in continuous conduction mode. In extreme cases, a
converter that is well-behaved in continuous conduction mode
may actually become unstable at light load or with no load
unless correctly designed. Many commercial DC-DC converter
modules specify a large minimum load to prevent operation in
discontinuous conduction mode.
A converter that operates deeply in discontinuous conduction
mode requires a very small duty ratio. Operation at very light
loads is not a problem for DPA-Switch because it automatically
reduces the effective switching frequency by skipping cycles
to give duty ratios less than about 5%.
Operation at small duty ratios requires a larger capacitor to
keep the bias voltage above its minimum required value of
8 V. In a trade-off with size, cost and efficiency, the best solution
to a requirement to operate with no load is to include a small
preload in parallel with the output capacitors. The amount of
the load is determined empirically to supplement the natural
loading from the other small-signal circuits that get their power
from the output.
Synchronous Rectification
The use of synchronous rectification can yield a substantial
increase in efficiency over passive Schottky rectifiers on the
AN-31
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Q1
Q2
D3
D4
R15
R16
C17
L2
PI-3475-062204
Q1
Q2
D3
R15
L2
PI-2989-062204
(a)
(b)
Output Voltage Efficiency Gain Over Diode
Rectification
5 V +3%
3.3 V +6%
2.5 V +8%
Figure 12. Synchronous Rectification (a) Winding Driven DC
Coupled. (b) Winding Driven AC Coupled.
Table 3. Efficiency Gain vs. Output Voltage for Synchronous
Rectification.
output. For a 5 V output, an efficiency of 85% with Schottky
rectifiers would typically go to 90% or higher with synchronous
rectifiers. Synchronous rectification gives the benefit of greater
efficiency at lower output voltages as shown in Table 3.
DPA-Switch has features that can simplify the design of
synchronous rectifier circuits that are in common use. Circuits
for synchronous rectification with DPA-Switch fall into three
categories of increasing complexity.
a) Winding Driven DC Coupled
b) Winding Driven AC Coupled
c) Actively Driven
The first two are shown in Figures 11 and 12. MOSFETs Q1
and Q2 conduct at appropriate times to reduce the voltage drops
associated with the output rectifiers of a forward converter. Q2
performs the function of the forward rectifier. Q1 operates as the
catch rectifier with a parallel Schottky diode. The voltage drop
of each synchronous rectifier is dominated by the on-resistance
of the MOSFETs multiplied by the RMS load current, rather
than by the average current times the minimum voltage of a
Schottky barrier.
Winding Driven DC Coupled Synchronous Rectifier
The simplest way to drive synchronous rectifiers with
DPA-Switch is shown in Figure 12 (a). The gate-to-source
voltage that turns on the MOSFETs is essentially the voltage
at the secondary winding of the transformer. The channel of the
MOSFET will conduct as long as the gate-to-source voltage
exceeds the threshold voltage.
The forward rectifier MOSFET Q2 turns on when the
DPA-Switch turns on to apply the DC input voltage across the
primary winding. The direction of current in Q2 is from source
to drain. When the DPA-Switch turns off, the reset voltage on
the transformer forces a negative gate-to-source voltage on Q2
and a positive gate-to-source voltage on Q1. Schottky diode D3
conducts until the gate-to-source voltage on Q1 rises sufficiently
to exceed the threshold voltage.
Suitable MOSFETs for this application have threshold voltages
typically between 4 V and 5 V. The permissible maximum gate-
to-source voltage is usually 15 V to 20 V. These restrictions
limit the range of input voltage for converter operation.
The integrated line overvoltage feature of DPA-Switch simplifies
the design of winding driven synchronous rectifiers. In most
cases it eliminates the need for Zener diodes to protect the gates
of the MOSFETs from excessive voltage. Excess voltage will
not appear on the secondary of the transformer because the
DPA-Switch will not operate when the input voltage is too
high.
DC coupling of the gates in this configuration permits a mode
of operation that may not be desirable in some applications.
During shutdown, the voltage across the output inductor will go
to zero after its current decays to zero. The remaining output
voltage will then appear across Q1 and D3.
If the output voltage is high enough (above the gate threshold
of Q2) it will turn on Q2, allowing reverse current to flow
through L2 and the transformer secondary. The voltage on the
secondary winding will saturate the transformer, abruptly turning
off Q2 and generating a voltage spike on the gate of Q1. This
voltage spike may exceed the rated gate voltage for Q1. This
behavior can occur in any design using this form of synchronous
rectification with an undervoltage lockout. It is not specific to
DPA-Switch. A solution to this issue is offered below.
Winding Driven AC Coupled Synchronous Rectifier
The AC coupled circuit of Figure 12 (b) eliminates the high
voltage spike by limiting the on-time of Q2 such that significant
reverse current cannot flow through L2 and the secondary
AN-31
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16
winding. Capacitor C17 should be chosen to capacitively divide
the winding voltage between C17 and the CGS of MOSFET
Q2, to provide a voltage on CGS that exceeds the Q2 threshold
voltage. The time constant of C17 and R16 should be about
10 µs for 300 kHz operation. R15 is typically about 10 Ω.
Figure 11 shows the DPA-Switch in a single-ended DC-DC
forward converter that uses winding driven AC coupled
synchronous rectification. In this example, the gate of Q1
has enough capacitance to eliminate the need for the discrete
capacitor CS in the transformer reset circuit. Although this
is often the case with synchronous rectifiers that are winding
driven, designers should follow the guidance in the section on
Verification of Transformer Reset to confirm that the transformer
resets properly.
Actively Driven Synchronous Rectifiers
The third category of synchronous rectifier circuits uses
independent active components that may include discrete devices
and integrated circuits to lock onto the switching frequency of
the power supply and to drive the MOSFETs. This solution
relaxes the restriction on the range of input voltage because the
driver can regulate the gate voltage to be independent of the
voltage on the secondary winding. Circuits for actively driven
synchronous rectifiers are much more complex than the other
solutions, and are beyond the scope of this application note.
Table 4 gives a comparison of the techniques for synchronous
rectification.
In general, DPA-Switch with synchronous rectifiers should
operate at the lower switching frequency of 300 kHz. The
synchronous rectifier catch MOSFETs typically have gate-
source capacitance values such that the transformer would have
insufficient time to reset at 400 kHz. Connect the F pin to the
CONTROL pin to select the lower switching frequency.
Layout Considerations
Figure 13 shows an example of a proper circuit board layout for
a forward converter with DPA-Switch. Since the DPA-Switch
can operate with large drain current, designers should follow
these guidelines carefully.
Primary Side Connections
The tab of DPA-Switch is the intended return connection for the
high switching currents. Therefore, the tab should be connected
by wide, low impedance traces to the input capacitor. The
SOURCE pin should not be used to return the power currents;
incorrect operation of the device may result. The SOURCE pin
is intended as a signal ground only. The device tab (SOURCE)
is the correct connection for power currents.
The bypass capacitor on the CONTROL pin should be located
as close as possible to the SOURCE and CONTROL pins. The
circuit trace of its connection to SOURCE should not contain
any switching current from the primary or bias voltages.
All SOURCE pin referenced components connected to the
LINE-SENSE (L) or EXTERNAL CURRENT LIMIT (X)
pins should also be located closely between their respective
pins and SOURCE. Once again, the SOURCE connection
trace of these components should not conduct any of the main
MOSFET switching currents. It is critical that tab (SOURCE)
power switching currents are returned to the negative terminal
of the input capacitor through a separate trace that is not shared
by the components connected to the SOURCE, CONTROL,
L or X pins.
Any traces to the L or X pins should be kept as short as possible
and away from the drain trace to prevent noise coupling. Line-
sense resistor (R1 in Figure 11) should be located close to the L
pin to minimize the trace length on the L pin side. In addition
to the CONTROL pin capacitor (C5 in Figure 11), a 220 nF
high frequency bypass capacitor in parallel is recommended
as close as possible between SOURCE and CONTROL pins
for better noise immunity. The feedback optocoupler output
should also be located close to the CONTROL and SOURCE
pins of DPA-Switch.
Heat Sinking
To maximize heat sinking of the DPA-Switch and the other
power components, special thermally conductive PC board
material (aluminum clad PC board) is recommended. This
has an aluminum sheet bonded to the PC board during the
manufacturing process to provide heat sinking directly or to
allow the attachment of an external heat sink. If normal PC
Synchronous Rectifier Type Efficiency Complexity
and Cost Comment
Winding Driven DC Coupled ⇑ ⇓ Check Gate Voltage at Power Down
Winding Driven AC Coupled ⇑ ⇔ Gate Voltage Controlled at Power Down
Active Drive ⇑ ⇑⇑⇑ High Complexity
Table 4. Comparison of Synchronous Rectification Techniques.
AN-31
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V
V
PI-2883-060602
Solder Side
Component Side
TOP VIEW
S
L
C
X
Transformer
-
+
V
+
-
DC
Out
Maximize hatched copper area for optimum heat sinking
V
Via between board layers
V
Opto-
coupler
Inductor
(Coupled)
Output
Diode
D
DPA-Switch
Figure 13. Layout Considerations for DPA-Switch Using R Package.
board material is used (such as FR4), providing copper areas on
both sides of the board and using thicker copper will improve
heat sinking.
If an aluminum clad board is used, then shielding of switching
nodes is recommended. This consists of an area of copper placed
directly underneath switching nodes such as the drain node
and output diode to provide an electrostatic shield to prevent
coupling to the aluminum substrate. These areas are connected
to input negative in the case of the primary and output return
for secondary. This reduces the amount of capacitive coupling
into the insulated aluminum substrate that can then appear on
the output as ripple and high frequency noise.
Quick Design Checklist
As with any power supply design, all DPA-Switch designs
should be verified on the bench to make sure that component
specifications limits are not exceeded under worst case
conditions. The following minimum set of tests for DPA-Switch
forward converters is strongly recommended:
1. Maximum drain voltage – Verify that peak drain-to-source
voltage does not exceed minimum BVDSS at highest input
voltage and maximum overload output power. It is normal,
however, to have additional margin of approximately 25 V
below BVDSS to allow for other power supply component
unit-to-unit variations. Maximum overload output power
occurs when the output is loaded to a level just before the
power supply goes into auto-restart (loss of regulation).
2. Transformer reset margin – Drain voltage should also be
checked at highest input voltage with a severe load step
(50% to 100%) to verify adequate transformer reset margin.
This test slews the duty cycle at high input voltage, placing
the most demand on the transformer reset circuit.
3. Maximum drain current – At maximum ambient temperature,
maximum input voltage and maximum output load, verify
drain current waveforms at start-up for any signs of
transformer or output inductor saturation and excessive
leading edge current spikes. DPA-Switch has a leading edge
blanking time of 100 ns to prevent premature termination
of the cycle. Verify that the leading edge current spike does
not extend beyond the blanking period.
AN-31
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18
4. Thermal check – At maximum output power, minimum
input voltage and maximum ambient temperature, verify
that temperature specifications are not exceeded for the
transformer, output diodes, output inductors and output
capacitors. The DPA-Switch is fully protected against
overtemperature conditions by its thermal shutdown
feature. It is recommended that sufficient heat sinking is
provided to keep the tab temperature at or below 115 °C
under worst case continuous load conditions (at low input
voltage, maximum ambient and full load). This provides
adequate margin to minimum thermal shutdown temperature
(130 °C) to account for part-to-part RDS(ON) variation. When
monitoring tab temperature, note that the junction-to-case
thermal resistance should be accounted for when estimating
die temperature.
Design Tools
Up-to-date information on design tools is available at the Power
Integrations website: www.powerint.com.
References
[1] Ferroxcube (formerly Philips) core supplier –
www.ferroxcube.com.
[2] TDK cores supplier – www.component.tdk.com/ components/
ferrite.asp.
[3] AVX (Thompson) core supplier - www.avxcorp.com.
[4] M. Domb, R. Redl, and N.O. Sokal. “Nondissipative turn-off
snubber in a forward converter: analysis, design procedure, and
experimental verification,” Official Proceedings of the Tenth
International PCI ʻ85 Conference, pp. 54-68.
[5] T. Ninomiya, T. Tanaka, and K. Harada, “Analysis and
optimization of a nondissipative LC turn-off snubber,” IEEE
Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol. 3, No. 2, April 1988,
pp. 147-156.
AN-31
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Power Integrations may make changes to its products at any time. Power Integrations has no liability arising from your use of any information, device or circuit
described herein nor does it convey any license under its patent rights or the rights of others. POWER INTEGRATIONS MAKES NO WARRANTIES HEREIN
AND SPECIFICALLY DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, AND NON-INFRINGEMENT OF THIRD PARTY RIGHTS.
PATENT INFORMATION
The products and applications illustrated herein (including circuits external to the products and transformer construction) may be covered by one or more U.S.
and foreign patents or potentially by pending U.S. and foreign patent applications assigned to Power Integrations. A complete list of Power Integrationsʼ patents
may be found at www.powerint.com.
LIFE SUPPORT POLICY
POWER INTEGRATIONSʼ PRODUCTS ARE NOT AUTHORIZED FOR USE AS CRITICAL COMPONENTS IN LIFE SUPPORT DEVICES OR SYSTEMS
WITHOUT THE EXPRESS WRITTEN APPROVAL OF THE PRESIDENT OF POWER INTEGRATIONS. As used herein:
1. Life support devices or systems which, (a) are intended for surgical implant into the body, or (b) support or sustain life, and whose failure to perform, when
properly used in accordance with instructions for use provided in the labeling, can be reasonably expected to result in a significant injury to the user.
2. A critical component is any component of a life support device or system whose failure to perform can be reasonably expected to cause the failure of the life
support device or system, or to affect its safety or effectiveness.
The PI logo, TOPSwitch, TinySwitch, LinkSwitch and EcoSmart are registered trademarks of Power Integrations.
PI Expert and DPA-Switch are trademarks of Power Integrations. ©Copyright 2003, Power Integrations
Power Integrations Worldwide Sales Support Locations
WORLD HEADQUARTERS
5245 Hellyer Avenue
San Jose, CA 95138, USA.
Main: +1-408-414-9200
Customer Service:
Phone: +1-408-414-9665
Fax: +1-408-414-9765
e-mail: usasales@powerint.com
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China, 518031
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Fax: +49-89-5527-3920
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ITALY
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Bresso
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Phone: +39-028-928-6001
Fax: +39-028-928-6009
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JAPAN
Keihin-Tatemono 1st Bldg.
12-20 Shin-Yokohama
2-Chome,
Kohoku-ku, Yokohama-shi,
Kanagawa 222-0033, Japan
Phone: +81-45-471-1021
Fax: +81-45-471-3717
e-mail: japansales@powerint.com
KOREA
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17-8 Yoido-dong,
Youngdeungpo-gu,
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Phone: +82-2-782-2840
Fax: +82-2-782-4427
e-mail: koreasales@powerint.com
SINGAPORE
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#15-08/10 Goldhill Plaza
Singapore, 308900
Phone: +65-6358-2160
Fax: +65-6358-2015
e-mail: singaporesales@powerint.com
TAIWAN
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Nei Hu Dist.
Taipei, Taiwan 114, R.O.C.
Phone: +886-2-2659-4570
Fax: +886-2-2659-4550
e-mail: taiwansales@powerint.com
UK (EUROPE & AFRICA
HEADQUARTERS)
1st Floor, St. Jamesʼs House
East Street
Farnham
Surrey
GU9 7TJ
United Kingdom
Phone: +44 (0) 1252-730-140
Fax: +44 (0) 1252-727-689
e-mail: eurosales@powerint.com
APPLICATIONS HOTLINE
World Wide +1-408-414-9660
APPLICATIONS FAX
World Wide +1-408-414-9760
Revision Notes Date
A 1) – 6/02
B 1) Added new information: Bias circuits and Synchronous rectification. 4/03
C 1) Minor error corrections in the text. 7/04